Hexavalent chromium at the crossroads of science, environment and public health

Hexavalent chromium (Cr(vi)) contamination represents one of the most persistent and complex environmental challenges of our time. This comprehensive review synthesizes current knowledge across toxicology, environmental geochemistry, analytical chemistry, and remediation technologies to reveal fundamental disconnects between scientific understanding and practical solutions. While research has elucidated molecular mechanisms of Cr(vi) toxicity with remarkable precision - from cellular entry through oxidative damage cascades to genomic instability - this knowledge has not translated into proportionally effective environmental remediation strategies. The analysis reveals that chromium contamination is more complex and persistent than traditionally acknowledged. The reversible nature of chromium redox transformations creates dynamic contamination cycles that resist conventional treatment approaches. Emerging evidence challenges the traditional safe Cr(iii) versus toxic Cr(vi) paradigm, suggesting all chromium forms may pose health risks under certain conditions. Critical assessment of current remediation technologies demonstrates that while laboratory studies consistently report high removal efficiencies, these approaches fail to address the vast scale of existing environmental contamination. Most critically, conventional methods focus on transferring chromium between phases rather than implementing circular economy principles that enable recovery and reuse of this valuable element. The review concludes that to address the chromium crisis, it is necessary to move beyond conventional wastewater treatment and adopt prevention-focused strategies that emphasize circular economy principles. Future solutions must prioritize contamination prevention, closed-loop industrial systems, and long-term management rather than pursuit of complete remediation. Only through such realistic assessment and integrated action can we hope to minimize the ongoing impacts of this persistent environmental challenge.