The mechanisms and functions of mitochondria-encapsulating extracellular vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-bound subcellular entities that perform crucial roles in cellular communication and the release of intracellular contents. Traditionally, EVs have been recognized for encapsulating a variety of biomolecules, including DNA, RNA, proteins, and metabolites. However, recent advancements in research have revealed that EVs can also encapsulate organelles, with mitochondria emerging as a significant cargo. This review delves into the burgeoning field of mitochondria-encapsulating EVs, such as mitophers, migrasomes, and exophers, along with other mitochondria-harboring EVs that are less characterized. We explore the discovery, distinctive features, and functional roles of these EVs in regulating mitochondrial quality and quantity, under both physiological and pathological conditions. The mechanisms underlying the generation of these vesicles are also examined. Additionally, we discuss the challenges and future directions in the study of mitochondria-containing EVs. Given their potential to serve as diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic tools, these mitochondria-embedded vesicles represent a promising frontier in molecular and cell biology, with significant implications for understanding and treating a range of diseases.