Global perspective on the genetic, epigenetic, and transcriptomic basis of gallbladder cancer

Gallbladder cancer (GBC) is a rare but aggressive malignancy with a poor prognosis. Its pathophysiology involves environmental, microbiological, and physiological factors. Emerging evidence highlights the role of genetic, epigenetic, and transcriptomic alterations in GBC onset. This article reviews these molecular changes in GBC patients.

A comprehensive search of PubMed, Scopus, EMBASE, and Google Scholar was conducted for articles published up to May 2025. A total of 248 relevant studies were included in this literature review.

This review identified 24 genes associated with GBC, with mutations impacting apoptosis, cell cycle regulation, DNA repair, and cell adhesion. Transcriptomic studies revealed alterations in coding and non-coding RNAs, emphasizing RNA-based gene regulatory networks. Epigenetic changes, including DNA methylation of tumor suppressor genes, histone acetylation, and miRNA-mediated regulation, were found to influence DNA repair, cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. Specific alterations in mRNAs, lncRNAs, and miRNAs were also observed.

GBC is often diagnosed at an advanced stage due to the lack of specific early signs and symptoms, with benign conditions frequently mimicking GBC. Early detection relies on identifying reliable biomarkers, which remain elusive. Ongoing research aims to discover biomarkers for early diagnosis, paving the way for improved treatment outcomes.