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Related Concept Videos

Cell-mediated Immune Responses01:40

Cell-mediated Immune Responses

Overview
Antigens Involved in Adaptive Immunity01:26

Antigens Involved in Adaptive Immunity

An antigen is any substance the immune system identifies as foreign and potentially harmful to the body, prompting an immune response. Antigens have two functional properties: immunogenicity and reactivity. Immunogenicity is the ability of an antigen to stimulate a specific immune response. At the same time, reactivity describes the antigen's ability to react with the cells and antibodies produced in response to it.
Complete Antigens
Complete antigens possess both immunogenicity and reactivity.
Antigen Presenting Cells01:22

Antigen Presenting Cells

The immune system is a complex network of cells and molecules that protects the body from foreign invaders. T cells, a type of white blood cell, play a crucial role in this process. They recognize and attack foreign substances, such as pathogens, that enter the body.
T cells require the help of antigen-presenting cells (APCs), which process foreign antigens into smaller fragments that can be recognized by T cells. These APCs are highly specialized cells that efficiently internalize antigens...
Cytotoxic T Cells-mediated Immune Response01:27

Cytotoxic T Cells-mediated Immune Response

Cytotoxic T cells are a vital component of the immune system. They have the remarkable ability to identify and target antigens on infected or abnormal cells. These antigens often originate from intracellular pathogens such as viruses or abnormal proteins cancer cells produce.
Immunological surveillance is the ability of immune cells to monitor and eliminate infected cells with intracellular pathogens, neoplastically transformed cells, and cells with non-self antigens. Cytotoxic T cells and NK...
B Cell Activation and Differentiation01:24

B Cell Activation and Differentiation

The adaptive immune response, a sophisticated defense mechanism, relies on the activation and differentiation of B lymphocytes, or B cells. These processes enable our bodies to mount a tailored response against specific pathogens such as bacteria, free virus particles, toxins, and parasites.
When naive B cells encounter a specific antigen that can bind to the B cell receptor (BCR) on their surface, they undergo sensitization to respond to the antigen's presence. Sensitization begins with...
Immune Response Against Viral Pathogens01:29

Immune Response Against Viral Pathogens

The immune system's response to viral infections is a complex and coordinated process involving natural killer (NK) cells, T cell-mediated responses, and antibody-mediated responses.
NK Cells
NK cells are a crucial part of our innate immune system, acting as the first line of defense against viral infections. These cells can recognize and kill infected cells without prior exposure to the virus, effectively slowing down the spread of infection. Additionally, NK cells produce proinflammatory...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 9, 2026

Whole-animal Imaging and Flow Cytometric Techniques for Analysis of Antigen-specific CD8+ T Cell Responses after Nanoparticle Vaccination
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Multivalent Co-assembly of LL37-CpG nanoparticles: Enhanced immune response through activating multiple cell

Yushuang Wei1, Wenwen Li1, Rong Xu2,1

  • 1Songshan Lake Materials Laboratory, Dongguan, 523808, Guangdong, China.

Materials Today. Bio
|July 7, 2025
PubMed
Summary

The human antimicrobial peptide LL37 helps assemble CpG oligonucleotides (CpG ODNs) into nanoparticles, enhancing cellular uptake and boosting immune responses for potential vaccine adjuvants and therapeutics.

Keywords:
Cell internalizationImmune regulationLL37Self-assembled nanoparticleSingle-stranded nucleic acids

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Area of Science:

  • Immunology
  • Biotechnology
  • Nanomedicine

Background:

  • The human antimicrobial peptide LL37 is crucial for immune regulation and elevated in chronic inflammatory diseases.
  • Understanding LL37's mechanism is key for developing immune adjuvants and therapeutics.
  • CpG oligonucleotides (CpG ODNs) are clinically relevant immune adjuvants.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate how LL37 facilitates the assembly of CpG ODNs into nanoparticles.
  • To determine the cellular uptake mechanisms and immune activation potential of LL37-CpG nanoparticles.
  • To explore the therapeutic applications of LL37-CpG complexes.

Main Methods:

  • LL37 was used to assemble CpG ODNs into nanoparticles (NPs) with controlled size and zeta potential.
  • Cellular uptake pathways (receptor-mediated macropinocytosis, clathrin-mediated endocytosis) were analyzed.
  • TNF-α production in macrophages was measured to assess immune activation via lysosomal TLR9.

Main Results:

  • LL37 assembled CpG ODNs into charge ratio-dependent nanoparticles.
  • LL37-CpG NPs utilized macropinocytosis and LL37-mediated membrane penetration for enhanced cellular uptake.
  • LL37-CpG NP internalization significantly boosted TNF-α production in macrophages (>3.5-fold) via lysosomal TLR9.

Conclusions:

  • LL37-CpG nanoparticle assembly enhances cellular uptake and immune cell activation.
  • This mechanism provides a novel approach for modulating immune responses using peptide-CpG ODN complexes.
  • LL37-CpG NPs show promise as vaccine adjuvants and for immune modulation in disease treatment.