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Socioeconomic status and depression-a systematic review.
Anders Jespersen1, Rebecca A Madden2, Heather C Whalley3
1Institute of Biology, Aarhus Universitet, Aarhus, Denmark.
Epidemiologic Reviews
|July 11, 2025
Summary
Low socioeconomic status (SES) increases depression risk globally. This review found relative income, not absolute income, is a key risk factor for depression across diverse economies.
Area of Science:
- Psychiatry and Public Health
Background:
- Low socioeconomic status (SES) is a known risk factor for depression.
- Existing research indicates a link between SES and mental health disorders.
Purpose of the Study:
- To quantify the risk of clinical depression associated with low SES.
- To examine this association across different cultures, age groups, and study designs.
- To investigate if country income level modifies the SES-depression relationship.
Main Methods:
- Systematic review and meta-analysis of 162 studies (122 meta-analyzed).
- Literature search across five databases.
- Risk estimates for composite SES, income, education, and employment.
- Sensitivity analyses based on country income.
Main Results:
- Low SES is consistently associated with an increased risk of depression.
- Low income showed the highest odds ratio for depression (OR = 1.96).
- No significant differences in depression risk or heterogeneity were found between high- and low-income countries.
Conclusions:
- Relative income, rather than absolute income, appears to be a significant risk factor for depression.
- Findings suggest universal risk factors for depression related to socioeconomic status.
- Implications for preventative measures and policy interventions are discussed.
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