Organic Explosives in Plants and Soil: Accumulation, Analysis and Risk assessment - A Review

Explosives originating from military operations, industrial processes, and armed conflicts have become persistent environmental contaminants, with nitroaromatic and nitroheterocyclic compounds such as 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and 1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazinane (RDX) among the most hazardous. These substances can accumulate in soil and water at high concentrations and undergo chemical transformation, degradation, and plant uptake, posing serious risks to ecosystems and human health. While the analysis of explosives in water and soil has advanced significantly-primarily through techniques like LC-MS/MS-there remains a critical gap in understanding their behavior and metabolism in plant matrices. This review critically examines current analytical methodologies for detecting explosives and their transformation products in environmental samples, with special emphasis on soil and plant systems. We discuss the strengths and limitations of extraction techniques such as ultrasound-assisted extraction, pressurized liquid extraction, and accelerated solvent extraction, as well as challenges posed by matrix complexity and analyte instability. Instrumental techniques including LC-MS/MS, GC-ECD, MALDI-TOF, and emerging ambient ionization mass spectrometry approaches are evaluated in terms of sensitivity, selectivity, and field applicability. Additionally, this review highlights gaps in regulatory frameworks concerning permissible residue levels in plants and proposes future directions for standardizing methods and improving risk assessment protocols. By focusing on plant contamination-an often-overlooked yet crucial link in environmental exposure pathways-this work underscores the urgent need for integrated analytical strategies to monitor, manage, and mitigate the environmental and health impacts of explosive residues.