Emission Inequality of Antimony-Containing Nanoparticles in China

Antimony (Sb) is a globally concerning pollutant. Sb-containing nanoparticles (Sb NPs) are increasingly being recognized for their human health risks. They can impair erythropoiesis and exhibit potential oxidative stress, neurotoxicity, and ferroptosis. To date, there have been no reports on identifying and quantifying industrial sources of Sb NPs, limiting human exposure assessment, and emission control strategy development. Here, we analyzed Sb NP concentrations in industrial fine particulate matter from 113 facilities across 13 sectors, covering 54 cities in over 20 provinces in China. Cement kilns, coke production, and electric arc furnace steelmaking were identified as priority sources, with annual emissions of 6.01 × 10²¹, 7.87 × 10²⁰, and 6.75 × 10²⁰ Sb NPs, respectively. Sb NP emissions and human exposure were highest in the east of China, followed by the central region, with lower levels in the west and northeast. Industrial clustering exacerbates health disparities between cities and provinces, with people in the eastern regions facing twice the exposure risk of those in western regions. Achieving cobenefits of health protection and industrial development could be realized through capacity regulation─including capacity reductions of priority sources, decentralization of major industrial hubs, revitalization of traditional industrial cities, and national-scale industrial transfer─alongside emission monitoring, standard-setting, and technological advancement in pollution control targeting Sb NPs for high-emission sectors. These findings provide data for Sb NP emission control and eliminate disparities of Sb NP-related risks in China, offering insights for global industrial Sb NP management.