Summary
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When T cells with CD4 markers are activated, they give rise to two types of effector cells: helper T cells and regulatory T cells. Meanwhile, T cells with CD8 markers differentiate into effector cytotoxic T cells. The differentiation of CD4 T cells into helper T cell subsets, such as Th1, Th2, and Th17 cells, is dependent on the antigen type, antigen-presenting cell, and regulatory cytokines.
Th1 cells stimulate dendritic cells to express necessary co-stimulatory molecules on their surfaces for...
Several cytokine receptors have tightly bound Janus kinase or JAK proteins attached at their cytosolic tail. Small signaling molecules such as cytokines, growth hormones, or prolactins bind to the cytokine receptors and initiate their dimerization. The dimerization brings the cytosolic JAKs together that trans-phosphorylate and activates each other. The activated JAKs now phosphorylate cytosolic tails of the cytokine receptors, which serve as binding sites for adaptor proteins such as SH2...
Secondary organs, including lymph nodes, the spleen, and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT), work harmoniously to protect us from disease and infection.
The spleen is a vital organ in the lymphatic system, nestled in the upper left side of the abdomen. It is composed of two primary regions: the red pulp and the white pulp, each having distinct functions. The red pulp performs a significant role in blood filtration. It efficiently purges the blood of old or damaged red blood cells and...
An inflammatory response is a localized, nonspecific immune reaction that occurs when a tissue is injured. It is characterized by redness, swelling, heat, and pain, which are commonly called the cardinal signs and symptoms of inflammation. Inflammation can sometimes result in a loss of function.
Inflammation can be triggered by various stimuli, such as impact, abrasion, chemical irritation, infections, and extreme hot or cold temperatures. These can damage cells and connective tissue fibers,...