Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy-Based Biosensors for Label-Free Detection of Pathogens

The escalating threat of infectious diseases necessitates the development of diagnostic technologies that are not only rapid and sensitive but also deployable at the point of care. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) has emerged as a leading technique for the label-free detection of pathogens, offering a unique combination of sensitivity, non-invasiveness, and adaptability. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the design and application of EIS-based biosensors tailored for pathogen detection, focusing on critical components such as biorecognition elements, electrode materials, nanomaterial integration, and surface immobilization strategies. Special emphasis is placed on the mechanisms of signal generation under Faradaic and non-Faradaic modes and how these underpin performance characteristics such as the limit of detection, specificity, and response time. The application spectrum spans bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic pathogens, with case studies highlighting detection in complex matrices such as blood, saliva, food, and environmental water. Furthermore, integration with microfluidics and point-of-care systems is explored as a pathway toward real-world deployment. Emerging strategies for multiplexed detection and the utilization of novel nanomaterials underscore the dynamic evolution of the field. Key challenges-including non-specific binding, matrix effects, the inherently low ΔR_ct/decade sensitivity of impedance transduction, and long-term stability-are critically evaluated alongside recent breakthroughs. This synthesis aims to support the future development of robust, scalable, and user-friendly EIS-based pathogen biosensors with the potential to transform diagnostics across healthcare, food safety, and environmental monitoring.