Sentinel-2 enabled E. coli and Enterococcus faecal bacteria surveillance in coastal-recreational waters

Monitoring faecal indicator bacteria (FIB), such as Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Enterococcus, in recreational waters is crucial for public health and environmental safety. Although satellite data is widely utilized for water quality monitoring, its direct use for monitoring FIB represents a novel and valuable application. This study pioneers the use of Sentinel-2 imagery to develop empirical models that identify, map and monitor E. coli and Enterococcus across 20 beaches in Calvià, Mallorca, Spain. Employing spectral indices derived from Sentinel-2 reflectance at 2022, 1614, and 443 nm wavelengths, the models effectively identified and distinguished bacterial contamination from traditional water quality indicators, including chlorophyll-a, turbidity, suspended matter, and coloured dissolved organic matter. The developed models demonstrated strong predictive capabilities (R² = 0.79 for E. coli, R² = 0.74 for Enterococcus, p < 0.05), successfully mapping contamination events and pollution sources. This study offers a new tool for monitoring faecal contamination, thus highlighting the potential of satellite technology to enhance environmental monitoring and ensure the safety of recreational waters.