Pharmacological Mechanisms of Cellular Nanoparticles in Biological Neutralization

Biological neutralization refers to the process by which a biological agent, such as an antibody, enzyme, or therapeutic nanoparticle, renders a target molecule or pathogen harmless or inactive. Traditional approaches, such as antibody-based therapies, rely on precise molecular recognition, requiring customized development for each target. Recently, cell membrane-coated nanoparticles (cellular nanoparticles or CNPs), formulated by using natural cell membranes as drug substances, have emerged as a promising alternative. Acting as decoys, CNPs bind harmful agents based on membrane function rather than the molecular specificity, enabling broad-spectrum neutralization. This review examines how this fundamental pharmacological mechanism has guided CNP design to counteract pathological threats, including bacterial toxins, nerve agents, neurotoxins, inflammatory cytokines, autoantibodies, secretory enzymes, and viruses. Furthermore, we discuss strategies to enhance CNP performance through modifying the nanoparticle core or the membrane shell. By highlighting recent advancements, we aim to inspire further research into CNP-based approaches for tackling complex biological threats.