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Antigens Involved in Adaptive Immunity01:26

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An antigen is any substance the immune system identifies as foreign and potentially harmful to the body, prompting an immune response. Antigens have two functional properties: immunogenicity and reactivity. Immunogenicity is the ability of an antigen to stimulate a specific immune response. At the same time, reactivity describes the antigen's ability to react with the cells and antibodies produced in response to it.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Sep 13, 2025

Author Spotlight: Adjuvant Activity of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in Enhancing the Immunogenicity of Autoantigens During Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis
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Immunization with Complete Freund's Adjuvant Reveals Trained Immunity-like Features in A/J Mice.

Kiruthiga Mone1, Shraddha Singh1, Fatema Abdullatif2

  • 1School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA.

Vaccines
|July 30, 2025
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Summary

Complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) may induce trained immunity (TI). Our study found CFA altered cytokine profiles, metabolic reprogramming, and epigenetic changes in bone marrow cells, suggesting a role for TI in CFA's immunomodulatory effects.

Keywords:
CFAFreund’s adjuvantsIFAadjuvantscomplete Freund’s adjuvantepigeneticsimmunometabolismincomplete Freund’s adjuvantinnate immune memorymetabolomicstrained immunityvaccine adjuvants

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Area of Science:

  • Immunology
  • Molecular Mechanisms
  • Cellular Biology

Background:

  • Freund's adjuvants are known to modulate the immune system, but the specific molecular pathways are not fully understood.
  • Investigating the role of trained immunity (TI) offers a potential explanation for the observed immunomodulatory effects.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To determine if the immune-stimulating effects of complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) are mediated by trained immunity (TI).
  • To elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying CFA's immunomodulatory actions.

Main Methods:

  • Bone marrow cells (BMCs) from A/J mice immunized with CFA, incomplete Freund's adjuvant (IFA), or Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) were analyzed.
  • Evaluations included cytokine profiles, metabolic assays (lactate levels), and epigenetic analyses (histone enrichment).

Main Results:

  • CFA and BCG significantly elevated specific cytokine expressions (e.g., TNF-α, IL-1β, CXCL10) compared to saline or IFA.
  • CFA-treated BMCs exhibited metabolic reprogramming, including increased lactate production indicative of aerobic glycolysis, a hallmark of TI.
  • Epigenetic analysis showed histone enrichment at the TNF-α promoter in CFA-treated BMCs, suggesting a role in sustained immune responses.

Conclusions:

  • The findings suggest that the immunomodulatory effects of CFA may involve mechanisms associated with trained immunity.
  • This study provides novel insights into the molecular underpinnings of Freund's adjuvant actions.