Bioengineered Hydrogels for Restoring Cardiac Electronic Activity after Myocardial Infarction

Myocardial infarction (MI) is a significant global public health challenge affecting millions of individuals every year. Cardiac tissue engineering (CTE), especially cardiac hydrogels, have emerged as a promising therapeutic strategy for MI. Formation of stiff and non-conductive fibrous scars in the infarcted area is a major cause of fatal ventricular arrhythmias and progressive heart failure. Therefore, restoration of cardiac electrical activity is an important research objective of CTE. Bioactive hydrogels are characterized by highly adjustable physicochemical properties, good biocompatibility, and excellent drug/material-loading capacity. Different types of bioactive hydrogels have been fabricated to improve heart function and restore electrophysiological integrity. This review describes pathophysiological changes after MI and summarizes the design principles and applications of various electroactive hydrogels that have been used to improve cardiac electronic activity after MI. The focus is on the importance of reactivating cardiac electronic activity and fabrication strategies for hydrogels based on the use of a variety of conductive biomaterials, including carbon-based nanomaterials, gold-based nanomaterials, and conductive polymers.