Emerging threats of nanoparticles in marine and terrestrial environments: Toxicity mechanisms and risk management

Nanotechnology has emerged as a prominent research domain globally due to its immense potential across diverse fields and its significant economic implications. Over recent decades, the production and utilization of nanomaterials (NMs) have grown exponentially, finding applications in pharmaceuticals, agriculture, electronics, and sports industries. While the societal and economic benefits of nanotechnology are undeniable, its extensive usage has raised concerns regarding environmental and health risks. The introduction of NMs into the environment poses potential hazards due to their variable dimensions, unique physicochemical properties, and chemical compositions. These characteristics influence their behavior, mobility, transformation, and interactions in biological and ecological systems. Despite increasing utilization, our understanding of the toxicological impacts of NMs remains limited. Nanotoxicology, a field dedicated to studying the toxic effects of engineered NMs, is critical to elucidate their adverse impacts on living organisms and ecosystems. Substantial research has been conducted to explore these effects, particularly concerning the interaction of NMs with microbial, plant, animal, and human systems. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge on NM toxicity, including their modes of entry, mechanisms of action, and deleterious effects. Furthermore, the paper highlights advancements in toxicity assessment methodologies, discusses risk management strategies, and outlines regulatory frameworks and safety guidelines essential for mitigating risks associated with NMs.