Dual process theory and smoking: Evidence for independent System 1-2 pathways in predicting smoking frequency

The study develops a novel method to measure System 1 (fast, cue-based, thought-light) smoking frequency as an outcome measure to overcome the limitations of existing measures. It also examines its relationship to System 2 (slow, deliberative) measures. 116 participants met in two sessions set at 48 hours apart. System 2 measure of smoking frequency was measured via self-reported 24-hour smoking frequency. System 1 smoking frequency was measured by observing the number of cigarettes participants carried and asking about the number of cigarette packs consumed between the two sessions. System 2 measure of smoking frequency underestimated System 1 smoking frequency by 47.4%. Results also revealed that System 1 smoking attitudes only predicted the newly developed System 1 smoking frequency significantly, while System 2 smoking attitudes predicted only System 2 smoking frequency significantly. Hence, interventions that modify explicit attitudes (System 2) might have a limited impact on observed (System 1) smoking behaviours.