Emerging molecular Therapeutic targets in breast Cancer: Pathologic identification and clinical implications

Breast carcinoma represents a biologically heterogeneous group of malignancies with diverse clinical behaviors, highlighting the need for robust molecular markers to support accurate diagnosis, prognosis, and therapeutic decision-making. Histopathologic evaluation and assessment of established biomarkers, including estrogen receptor, progesterone receptor, and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2, remain central to clinical management, yet these biomarkers do not fully capture the disease complexity. Advances in genomics have enabled identification of intrinsic breast cancer subtypes, improving risk stratification and personalization of therapy. New molecular technologies such as next-generation sequencing and liquid biopsy approaches have uncovered actionable genomic alterations and allow for real-time monitoring. Emerging biomarkers such as cyclin E overexpression, BRCA1/2 mutations, and mismatch repair deficiency provide additional prognostic and predictive value, especially in guiding targeted therapies. The tumor microenvironment, including immune cell infiltration and stromal composition, has also gained recognition for its role in modulating tumor progression and therapeutic response. Liquid biopsy tools, including analysis of circulating tumor DNA, circulating tumor cells, and exosomes, offer promising non-invasive methods for disease surveillance and early detection of resistance. High-throughput techniques such as spatial transcriptomics and multiplex immunofluorescence are accelerating biomarker discovery with potential clinical application. Despite these advances, challenges remain in standardization, reproducibility, and clinical validation. This review summarizes current and emerging breast cancer biomarkers, emphasizing their role in advancing precision oncology. Continued translational research and methodological refinement are essential for successful integration of new biomarkers into clinical practice and for improving patient outcomes.