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Transformation

Transformation

Microbial communities are dynamic environments where cell lysis releases free DNA into the surroundings. Other cells can take up this extracellular DNA through a process known as transformation.When a cell incorporates this foreign DNA into its genome, resulting in genetic modification, the process is known as transformation. Cells capable of this process are termed competent. Competence can be natural, as observed in certain bacteria and archaea, or artificially induced in the...

Conservative Site-specific Recombination and Phase Variation

Conservative Site-specific Recombination and Phase Variation

Because the DNA segments are cut and reorganized in a direction-specific manner, site-specific recombination has emerged as an efficient genetic engineering technique. Flippase and Cyclization recombinases or Flp and Cre, respectively, are two members of the tyrosine recombinase family derived from bacteriophages, that are used to mediate site-specific DNA insertions, deletions, and targeted expression of proteins in mammalian cell lines.
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Gene Conversion

Gene Conversion

Other than maintaining genome stability via DNA repair, homologous recombination plays an important role in diversifying the genome. In fact, the recombination of sequences forms the molecular basis of genomic evolution. Random and non-random permutations of genomic sequences create a library of new amalgamated sequences. These newly formed genomes can determine the fitness and survival of cells. In bacteria, homologous and non-homologous types of recombination lead to the evolution of new...

Overview of Transposition and Recombination

Overview of Transposition and Recombination

Transposons make up a significant part of genomes of various organisms. Therefore, it is believed that transposition played a major evolutionary role in speciation by changing genome sizes and modifying gene expression patterns. For example, in bacteria, transposition can lead to conferring antibiotic resistance. Movement of transposable elements within the genetic pool of pathogenic bacteria can aid in transfer of antibiotic-resistant genetic elements. In eukaryotes, transposons can carry out...

Homologous Recombination

Homologous Recombination

The basic reaction of homologous recombination (HR) involves two chromatids that contain DNA sequences sharing a significant stretch of identity. One of these sequences uses a strand from another as a template to synthesize DNA in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction. The final product is a novel amalgamation of the two substrates. To ensure an accurate recombination of sequences, HR is restricted to the S and G2 phases of the cell cycle. At these stages, the DNA has been replicated already and the...

DNA Topoisomerases

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Topoisomerases are enzymes that relax overwound DNA molecules during various cell processes, including DNA replication and transcription. These enzymes regulate positive and negative DNA supercoiling without changing the nucleotide sequence. DNA overwinding in a clockwise direction results in positively supercoiled DNA, whereas underwinding in a counterclockwise direction produces negatively supercoiled DNA.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Sep 12, 2025

DNA-Tethered RNA Polymerase for Programmable In vitro Transcription and Molecular Computation

DNA-Tethered RNA Polymerase for Programmable In vitro Transcription and Molecular Computation

Published on: December 29, 2021

Reversible DNA condensation drives natural transformation.

Joshua I Santiago, Ishtiyaq Ahmed, Jeanette Hahn

Biorxiv : the Preprint Server for Biology

|August 6, 2025

Summary

Bacterial DNA receptor ComEA uses dynamic oligomers to pull transforming DNA into the cell. This process is crucial for spreading antibiotic resistance and involves reversible DNA condensation and decondensation.

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Design and Synthesis of a Reconfigurable DNA Accordion Rack

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Published on: August 15, 2018

Area of Science:

Microbiology
Molecular Biology
Biophysics

Background:

Natural transformation is a key mechanism for bacterial genetic exchange and the spread of antibiotic resistance.
The DNA receptor ComEA plays a vital role in importing external DNA into the bacterial periplasm, but its mechanism remains unclear.

Purpose of the Study:

To elucidate the mechanism by which ComEA facilitates DNA uptake during natural transformation.
To investigate the structural dynamics of ComEA on DNA and its role in force generation.

Main Methods:

Single-molecule optical tweezers were employed to measure forces exerted by ComEA on DNA.
Electron microscopy was used to visualize ComEA-DNA complexes.
Mutational analysis in *Bacillus subtilis* assessed the functional importance of ComEA conformations.

Main Results:

ComEA forms dynamic oligomers on DNA that switch between bridging and non-bridging conformations based on local concentration.
Bridging oligomers condense DNA and generate sub-piconewton pulling forces, essential for periplasmic import.
Non-bridging oligomers decondense DNA and do not generate force, facilitating cytoplasmic transport.

Conclusions:

ComEA utilizes reversible DNA condensation and decondensation to drive DNA transport during natural transformation.
Both force generation (condensation) and force abatement (decondensation) by ComEA are essential for successful transformation.
Understanding ComEA's mechanism provides insights into bacterial genetic exchange and antibiotic resistance dissemination.