Towards a valid and reliable smartphone overdependence scale: Factor analysis, and measurement invariance testing

Smartphone overdependence is emerging as a critical public health concern due to its adverse effects on psychological, social, and physical well-being. This study aimed to test the reliability and validity of the Smartphone Overdependence Scale for assessing smartphone overdependence among adolescents. Data were sourced from the 2023 Korea Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to examine the scale's internal structure. Reliability was assessed using Cronbach's alpha, McDonald's omega, and the greatest lower bound. Further, measurement invariance was evaluated across sex, school level, residential area, academic performance, and socioeconomic status. The results revealed a three-factor structure for smartphone overdependence: salience, loss of control, and negative consequences. The refined 9-item scale demonstrated strong model fit and high internal consistency. Further, the scale remained structurally stable across different demographic and socioeconomic groups, allowing for meaningful cross-group comparisons. Overall, the results support the seven-item Smartphone Overdependence Scale as a reliable, efficient, and psychometrically sound instrument for assessing smartphone overdependence among Korean adolescents. Its multifactor structure can help develop interventions that address compulsive engagement, self-regulation difficulties, and negative consequences of excessive smartphone use.