Decoding the growth-defense dialectic: TOR signaling and developmental genetics in maize

Plants face diverse abiotic and biotic stresses, including drought, heat, salinity, herbivory, pathogens, and competition. To mitigate the fitness costs of these threats, they have evolved immediate compensatory mechanisms and immune responses, such as phytohormone signaling, secondary metabolite production, and the hypersensitive response. However, activating these stress-response programs often comes at the expense of optimal growth. This shift in cellular energy and resource allocation underpins the classical 'growth-defense trade-off'. Beyond short-term metabolic reprogramming, plants also engage developmental switches that alter broader growth patterns to compensate for or avoid stress. In this review, we explore how maize, a longstanding model for plant development, rewires growth in response to stress. We highlight key developmental genes that maintain homeostatic growth or trigger major morphological changes in coordination with stress signals. We also examine recent insights into how plants rebalance energy under stress, with a focus on the TOR-sensitive hormone networks. Finally, we discuss how maize-specific innovations in growth-stress integration could inform efforts to enhance resilience in other crops. These strategies are essential for developing more sustainable agriculture, where crops can endure transient stress without initiating permanent developmental shifts that reduce yield.