Engineered Hydrogels for Musculoskeletal Regeneration: Advanced Synthesis Strategies and Therapeutic Efficacy in...

According to the World Health Organization, musculoskeletal injuries affect more than 1.71 billion people around the world. These injuries are a major public health issue and the leading cause of disability. There has been a recent interest in hydrogels as a potential biomaterial for musculoskeletal tissue regeneration. This is due to their high water content (70-99%), ECM-like structure, injectability, and controllable degradation rates. Recent preclinical studies indicate that they can enhance regeneration by modulating the release of bioactive compounds, growth factors, and stem cells. Composite hydrogels that combine natural and synthetic polymers, like chitosan and collagen, have compressive moduli that are advantageous for tendon-bone healing. Some of these hydrogels can even hold up to 0.8 MPa of tensile strength. In osteoarthritis models, functionalized systems such as microspheres responsive to matrix metalloproteinase-13 have demonstrated disease modulation and targeted drug delivery, while intelligent in situ hydrogels have exhibited a 43% increase in neovascularization and a 50% enhancement in myotube production. Hydrogel-based therapies have been shown to restore contractile force by as much as 80%, increase myofiber density by 65%, and boost ALP activity in bone defects by 2.1 times in volumetric muscle loss (VML) models. Adding TGF-β3 or MSCs to hydrogel systems improved GAG content by about 60%, collagen II expression by 35-50%, and O'Driscoll scores by 35-50% in cartilage regeneration.