Assessing the long-term health risk of non-potable greywater reuse options based on four selected bacterial pathogens

Global water scarcity drives the need for sustainable water management. Non-potable greywater (GW) reuse offers a viable strategy to reduce urban water demand. However, potential public health risks associated with exposure to pathogens in GW necessitate careful consideration. The World Health Organization (WHO) has established a benchmark of 1×10^-6 Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) per person per year (PPPY) for water-related health risks. This study develops and employs a stochastic Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA) model to evaluate the annual health risks associated with exposure to four bacterial pathogens in GW across eight exposure routes. Results indicate that exposure to raw GW presents an annual probability of illness of 1 × 10^-4 PPPY. Conversely, the use of treated GW significantly reduces the illness probability to 3.9 × 10^-5 PPPY, and the use of disinfected GW further decreases the risk to 7.1 × 10^-7 PPPY, an order of magnitude lower than the WHO's acceptable risk level. The findings indicate that the use of treated-and-disinfected GW, when managed with appropriate precautions, can maintain health risks within the tolerable limits defined by the WHO. This study provides a robust risk assessment framework that can inform the sustainable implementation of hybrid urban water systems.