Related Experiment Video
Updated: Sep 11, 2025

Remote Limb Ischemic Preconditioning: A Neuroprotective Technique in Rodents
Published on: June 2, 2015
Molecular Mechanisms and Toxic Effects of Ketamine
Yu-Meng Zuo1,2,3, Wei Han1,2,3, Jian-Bo Zhang1,2,3
1College of Forensic Medicine, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China.
Abstract:
Ketamine is a dissociative anesthetic. It is clinically used as a surgical anesthetic or anesthetic inducer and has a certain degree of mental dependence. Its abuse can lead to nerve damage, adverse emotional reactions and other toxic side effects. The primary mechanism by which ketamine exerts its pharmacological effects is to block N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDAR). It also functions through pathways such as α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isox-azolepropionic acid receptors (AMPAR), opioid receptors, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors, monoaminergic receptors, cholinergic receptors, hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels, voltage-gated sodium channels, and L-type voltage-dependent calcium channels (VDCC). This article summarizes the molecular mechanism and toxic effects of ketamine's pharmacological functions, in order to provide a basis for forensic applications such as the identification of symptomatic phenotypes of ketamine toxic effects and the identification of ketamine abuse.
Related Concept Videos
Local Anesthetics: Adverse Effects
Once absorbed into the systemic circulation, local anesthetics can affect the organs that depend on the functioning of sodium...
Parenteral Anesthetics: Overview
Toxic Reactions: Overview
Toxicity falls into two primary categories: local and systemic.
Local toxicity appears at the exposure site, such as protein denaturation caused by caustic substances.
In contrast, systemic toxicity requires the toxic agent's absorption and distribution,...
Local Anesthetics: Mechanism of Action
Local anesthetics are amphiphilic molecules consisting of a hydrophobic aromatic part linked to a hydrophilic group by an ester or amide linkage. They are weak bases and are usually available as salts, which increases their solubility and stability. Once administered, LAs exist in the body either...
Skeletal Muscle Relaxants: Adverse Effects
Unlike...
Sedatives and Hypnotics Drugs: Barbiturates

