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Related Concept Videos

Functional Brain Systems: Limbic System01:15

Functional Brain Systems: Limbic System

The limbic system, often called the "emotional brain," is a complex set of structures located deep within the brain. The intricate network of the limbic system supports a wide range of psychological functions, from emotional regulation to memory formation and sensory processing. This functional brain region encompasses specific parts of the diencephalon and the cerebrum, integrating the higher mental functions of the cerebral cortex with the primitive emotional responses of the deep brain...
Higher Mental Functions of Brain: Learning and Memory01:26

Higher Mental Functions of Brain: Learning and Memory

Memory is one of the most vital higher mental functions of the brain. Memory is closely related to learning because it enables us to retain information and experiences from our past to use them in our present life. It also helps us to remember facts, events, and skills, such as riding a bike or swimming. There are two types of memory — declarative memory, which involves memorizing facts or events, and procedural memory, which enables us to remember how to do something like writing or playing an...
System of Memory01:23

System of Memory

Memory is categorized into three major systems: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). These systems differ in their capacity and the duration for which they can hold information. Sensory memory captures raw sensory input from the environment, holding it for just a few seconds or less. For example, on hearing a brief, loud sound, like a car horn honking, the sound seems to linger in the mind for a moment even after it stops. This is an instance of sensory memory...
Storage01:23

Storage

A schema is a mental framework that helps individuals organize and interpret information. Schemata, formed from previous experiences, influence how we process new information: how we encode it, the inferences we make, and how we retrieve it. For instance, a schema for what a typical classroom looks like might include desks, a teacher's desk, a whiteboard, and students in such an environment. This expectation helps us quickly understand and navigate new classrooms without needing to analyze each...
Implicit Memories01:24

Implicit Memories

Implicit memories, also known as non-declarative memories, are long-term memories that function outside of conscious awareness. These memories influence behavior and skills without explicit knowledge. This type of memory is evident in tasks like playing tennis, snowboarding, and texting. Implicit memory has three subsystems: procedural memory, conditioning, and priming. This type of memory is essential in various activities, from everyday tasks to specialized skills.
One key aspect of implicit...
Role of Cerebellum and Prefrontal Cortex in Memory01:14

Role of Cerebellum and Prefrontal Cortex in Memory

The cerebellum, while traditionally associated with motor control, also plays a crucial role in memory, particularly in procedural memory, which involves learning motor tasks that become automatic through repetition. For example, studies have shown that when the cerebellum is damaged, individuals or animals lose the ability to learn conditioned motor responses, such as the conditioned eye-blink response in classical conditioning experiments with rabbits. This study demonstrates the cerebellum's...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 14, 2026

Generation of Standardized and Reproducible Forebrain-type Cerebral Organoids from Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
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Human neural organoid microphysiological systems show the building blocks necessary for basic learning and memory.

Dowlette-Mary Alam El Din1,2, Leah Moenkemoeller1, Alon Loeffler3

  • 1Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA.

Communications Biology
|August 16, 2025
PubMed
Summary

Neural organoids derived from human stem cells exhibit synaptic plasticity and network dynamics, mirroring brain functions. These models show potential for studying learning, memory, and neurological diseases.

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Stem Cell Biology
  • Organoid Research

Background:

  • Brain microphysiological systems, including neural organoids from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs), provide novel models for studying the human brain.
  • Understanding the fundamental mechanisms of learning and memory is crucial for neuroscience and developing treatments for neurological disorders.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate learning and memory foundational elements in neural organoids.
  • To quantify immediate early gene expression, synaptic plasticity, network dynamics, connectivity, and criticality in response to chemical and electrical stimulation.
  • To demonstrate the utility of neural organoids in basic science research and disease modeling.

Main Methods:

  • Neural organoids were generated from hiPSCs.
  • Immediate early gene expression was quantified basally and evoked.
  • Synaptic plasticity was assessed using theta-burst stimulation (TBS).
  • Pharmacological interventions targeted GABAergic and glutamatergic receptors.
  • Neuronal network dynamics, connectivity, and criticality were analyzed.

Main Results:

  • Neural organoids demonstrated synapse formation and expression of glutamatergic and GABAergic receptors.
  • Immediate early gene expression was observed both basally and evoked.
  • Functional connectivity, criticality, and synaptic plasticity (potentiation and depression) were evident following TBS.
  • Pharmacological modulation of receptors and TBS confirmed synaptic modulation capacity.

Conclusions:

  • Neural organoids successfully model key aspects of synaptic function, including plasticity and network dynamics.
  • These organoids serve as valuable tools for basic neuroscience research, investigating neurophysiological processes.
  • The findings support the potential of neural organoids for informing therapeutic strategies for neurological diseases.