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Related Concept Videos

Free-Radical Chain Reaction and Polymerization of Alkenes02:35

Free-Radical Chain Reaction and Polymerization of Alkenes

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The conversion of alkenes to macromolecules called polymers is a reaction of high commercial importance. The structure of the polymer is defined by a repeating unit, while the terminal groups are considered insignificant. The average degree of polymerization represents the number of repeating units in the polymer molecule and is denoted by the subscript n.
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Step-Growth Polymerization: Overview01:03

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Step-growth or condensation polymerization is a stepwise reaction of bi or multifunctional monomers to form long-chain polymers. As all the monomers are reactive, most of the monomers are consumed at the early stages of the reaction to form small chains of reactive oligomers, which then combine to form long polymer chains in the late stages. Hence, the reaction has to proceed for a long time to achieve high molecular weight polymers.
Many natural and synthetic polymers are produced by...
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Ziegler–Natta Chain-Growth Polymerization: Overview01:17

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Ziegler–Natta polymerization is another form of addition or chain‐growth polymerization used for synthesizing linear polymers over branched polymers. The catalyst used for polymerization is the Ziegler–Natta catalyst, named after Karl Ziegler and Giulio Natta, who developed it in 1953. This catalyst is an organometallic complex of titanium tetrachloride and triethyl aluminum, with the active form of the catalyst being an alkyl titanium compound. Using the Ziegler–Natta...
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Radical Chain-Growth Polymerization: Overview01:10

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Chain-growth or addition polymerization is successive addition reactions of monomers with a polymer chain. In radical chain-growth polymerization, the reaction proceeds via a free-radical intermediate. The free radical is formed from radical initiators, which spontaneously generate free radicals by homolytic fission. Organic peroxides (such as dibenzoyl peroxide, as shown in Figure 1) or azo compounds are popular radical initiators. A low concentration ratio of radical initiator to monomer is...
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Radical Chain-Growth Polymerization: Mechanism01:09

Radical Chain-Growth Polymerization: Mechanism

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The radical chain-growth polymerization mechanism consists of three steps: initiation, propagation, and termination of polymerization. The polymerization initiates when a free radical generated from the radical initiator adds to the unsaturated bond in the monomer. The unpaired electron of the free radical and one π electron in the unsaturated bond creates a σ bond between the free radical and the monomer. As a result, the other π electron in the unsaturated bond converts this...
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Polymers02:34

Polymers

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The word polymer is derived from the Greek words “poly” which means “many” and “mer” which means “parts”. Polymers are long chains of molecules composed of repeating units of smaller molecules, known as monomers. They either occur naturally, such as DNA and proteins, or can be constructed synthetically, like plastics. They have varied structural characteristics, such as linear chains, branched chains, or complex networks, that contribute to the...
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Updated: Sep 10, 2025

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Forever particles: histochemistry in the plasticene age.

Beatrice Camia1, Andrea Casasco2, Manuela Monti3

  • 1Section of Histology and Embryology, Department of Public Health, Experimental and Forensic Medicine, University of Pavia.

European Journal of Histochemistry : EJH
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Plastic waste is unmanageable and microplastics are found in human organs. These "forever particles" pose a health threat, acting as Trojan horses for pollutants. Further research is urgently needed.

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Area of Science:

  • Environmental Science
  • Toxicology
  • Cell Biology

Background:

  • Plastic consumption is pervasive, leading to escalating plastic waste.
  • Microplastics and nanoplastics are increasingly detected in human organs and tissues.
  • These particles can transport harmful pollutants like bacteria and heavy metals.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the current understanding of the plastics crisis.
  • To highlight the potential health risks associated with microplastic and nanoplastic exposure.
  • To call for interdisciplinary research into the effects of micro/nanoplastics on human health.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of the plastics crisis and emerging research on micro/nanoplastics.
  • Discussion of the implications of micro/nanoplastic presence in human organs.
  • Identification of research gaps in cytochemistry and histochemistry.

Main Results:

  • Plastic waste is projected to triple by 2050, with significant landfill accumulation.
  • Micro/nanoplastics have been identified in diverse human organs, including the brain and placenta.
  • These particles act as vectors for additional environmental toxins.

Conclusions:

  • The pervasive presence of micro/nanoplastics necessitates urgent scientific investigation.
  • Cytochemistry and histochemistry are crucial for understanding the cellular and tissue-level impacts.
  • Research should focus on the physiological effects of micro/nanoplastics from DNA to tissue levels.