Lead and Cadmium in Orange Juices Marketed in Morocco: A Comprehensive Survey and Human Health Risk Assessment

This study aimed to determine the levels of lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) in orange juice samples collected from various markets in Rabat (Morocco), using graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GF-AAS), and to evaluate the risk posed to consumer health. Pb was detected in 58% of samples, with concentrations ranging from 0.009 to 0.047 mg/kg and an average of 0.024 mg/kg. The incidence rates were 81.8% in pure juices, 70% in nectars, and 90% in juice concentrates. Five samples (16%) exceeded the maximum authorized limit for Pb (0.03 mg/kg) according to the standards of the European Commission, the Codex Alimentarius, and the Moroccan authorities. In the case of Cd, it was detected in 74.2% of samples, with levels ranging from 0.014 to 0.041 mg/kg (average: 0.025 mg/kg). Although no specific regulatory limit has been set for Cd in juices, the concentrations observed greatly exceeded the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) reference (0.005 mg/L) for drinking water. The non-carcinogenic risk assessment, based on hazard quotient (HQ) and hazard index (HI) values, revealed values of less than 1, indicating no significant long-term health risk. On the other hand, the carcinogenic risk (CR) and total carcinogenic risk (TCR) values for Cd exceeded the acceptable threshold of 1 × 10^-5 according to Health Canada recommendations, suggesting a potential cancer risk in the event of chronic exposure. Statistical analyses were performed using R software, including box and whisker plots to visualize the distribution and variability of heavy metals in orange juices. These results underscore the importance of ongoing monitoring and the establishment of suitable regulatory thresholds for trace elements in orange juice.