Real 2D Galvanostatic Model: Encoding Physicochemical Heterogeneity into a Full Battery

The propagation of physicochemical heterogeneity from particles to electrodes under galvanostatic cycling conditions largely determines battery performance but is often computationally unreachable. We formulate a Real 2D (R2D) full-battery model via an electrode-adaptive mathematical framework that addresses the electrochemically correlated nonlinear current-potential responses of the electrodes. This allows us to quantify the impact of multiphysics coupling on cycling performance in emerging solid-state batteries. R2D advances the modeling efficiency and can be generally applied to heterogeneous battery systems, providing a new pathway for accurate full battery simulations.