Variability in Language and Literacy Outcomes Among Deaf Elementary Students in a National Sample

This study examined the literacy outcomes of 368 deaf elementary students in the United States, focusing on reading and writing performance and their connections with demographic and language variables. Standardized assessment data were analyzed from students in grades 3-6. Results indicated wide variability in reading and writing performance, from scores at a standard deviation above the mean to more than 3 below the mean. There were demonstrated disparities in mean literacy outcomes based on disability status. A strong positive correlation was found between reading and writing scores, suggesting interconnected development of literacy skills. Notably, writing outcomes were consistently higher than reading across analyses. Performance trajectories differed by grade, with literacy gaps widening over time. Gender, race, and hearing level explained 2-3% of the variance in literacy outcomes, while language proficiency (in ASL and/or spoken English) and phonological knowledge (fingerspelled and/or spoken) predicated 55-63% of the models. These findings highlight the need for early accessible language exposure and responsive literacy instruction aligned with deaf learners' language strengths.