The role of IL-4+ memory T cells in SARS-CoV-2 booster vaccination

Vaccines effectively stimulate protective immune responses in healthy individuals, but the precise roles of germinal center (GC) and follicular helper T (TFH) cells in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) vaccine responses are not fully understood. This study used a conditional loss-of-function mouse model to investigate antibody responses to the Wuhan spike protein, specifically eliminating newly developed TFH cells during either the primary or memory phase. Our findings demonstrated that TFH-mediated GC responses are essential for primary vaccination. However, after booster immunization, memory B-cell responses were effectively regulated through extrafollicular mechanisms, independent of TFH cells. Ablating IL-4 receptor signaling in B cells attenuated antibody production in both the primary and memory phases, highlighting the critical role of IL-4 for optimal humoral immunity. We identified a unique population of IL-4-expressing memory T (IL-4+Tm) cells, characterized by CD27, GATA3, and IRF4 expression, that is strongly associated with these extrafollicular memory B-cell responses, capable of neutralizing SARS-CoV-2 variants. Furthermore, Omicron-based booster immunization recovered the immunity against emerging variants under TFH-deficient conditions. These results suggest that IL-4+Tm cells are an alternative pathway to sustain memory responses when GC function is impaired, particularly in immunocompromised states. Our study advances the understanding of memory T-cell-mediated humoral responses to SARS-CoV-2, offering insights for future vaccine strategies.