Long-term toxic effects of nanoparticles on human microbiota

Synthetic nanomaterials can penetrate various organs, such as the skin, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract, enter systemic circulation, and ultimately reach tissues and human cells. Nanomaterials used in medicine, food, cosmetics, and agricultural processes can accumulate in our intestines and cause dysbiosis. The direct and indirect detrimental impacts of nanomaterials on humans by altering our cells and microbiota are discussed in this paper. These adverse effects of nanomaterials can be slightly reduced by changing their physicochemical characteristics. Some of the gut microbiota can reduce or mitigate the toxicity of nanomaterials through various strategies providing approaches for pro- or postbiotics with detoxifying function. Moreover, nanomaterials influence the rate of horizontal gene transfer. The use of nanomaterials in food, water, and medicines needs to be legitimized based on the duration, dose, type, and level of toxicity. The negative implications of nanomaterials in human cells and their microbiota are surveyed in this paper.