Extraction and analysis of cannabinoids: A decade of progress, challenges and future directions

Cannabis is the most widely consumed illicit drug worldwide and its rapid expansion into medical and recreational markets has highlighted the need for effective analytical techniques. The analysis of major cannabinoids and their metabolites in different matrices has recently gained considerable attention in fields such as forensics, healthcare, environmental monitoring, and the cannabis food industry. However, the complexity of these matrices, ranging from biological samples to cannabis-infused products, raises significant challenges that require selective and effective extraction methods prior to chromatographic analysis. This review critically evaluates studies published over the past decade (2014-2024) and compares solvent-based and advanced extraction techniques in terms of efficiency, selectivity, and applicability. Although traditional solvent-based methods remain widely used, they often require extensive purification, while advanced approaches offer improved selectivity and environmental sustainability. However, no single technique is universally optimal, as the extraction method should be chosen according to the specific matrix and analytical requirements. Even with the recent progress, challenges, such as method standardization, cannabinoid thermal degradation and the extraction of conjugated metabolites, continue to persist and highlight the need for ongoing research. This review provides a comparative evaluation of current methodologies and identifies key gaps and future directions in cannabinoid analysis for forensic, pharmaceutical, and environmental applications.