Phosphorus-doped carbon dots and their analytical and bioanalytical applications: a review

In recent years, increasing attention has been directed toward the development and analytical applications of optical probes by integrating carbon dots (CDs). Doped CDs have become a focal point for researchers across multiple disciplines due to their exceptional properties, including low toxicity, photostability, and excellent biocompatibility. Among the doping elements, phosphorus stands out as one of the most widely used due to its thermal stability, relatively large atomic radius, abundance, cost-effectiveness, and electron availability. These characteristics make phosphorus distinct from other elements, enabling it to play specialized roles in diverse applications. This work highlights the latest advancements in phosphorus-doped CDs (P-CDs) for sensor applications. The initial section explores various doping strategies and presents a comprehensive discussion of their use in detecting cations, anions, pH, and small molecules. This article compiles recent progress in P-CDs-based optical probe and their application in analytical sensors, offering valuable insights and recommendations to inspire broader utilization in sensing technologies.