Geophytochemical and ethnopharmacological insights into Calotropis procera: bridging traditional knowledge and modern...

Calotropis procera is a resilient plant native to arid and semi-arid regions of Asia, Africa, and South America. This review aims to align the geophytochemical variability, and traditional medicinal uses of C. procera from different studies and locations with contemporary pharmacological insights for consensus knowledge and optimum drug discovery. Ethnobotanical records underscore its use across African, Middle Eastern and South Asian healing systems, where different plant parts are traditionally employed for analgesic, anti-inflammatory and wound-healing effects. Modern studies validated these applications, identifying key bioactive compounds such as calotropin, calactin, uscharin and α-amyrin, with notable antimicrobial, anticancer and immunomodulatory activities. Geophytochemical analyses further reveal that the plant's phytochemical profile and therapeutic efficacy are influenced by environmental conditions. However, significant gaps remain in correlating these phytogeographic patterns with pharmacological outcomes. This review calls for integrated ethnopharmacological and geochemical investigations to unlock the discovery of novel natural compounds to combat challenging health conditions.