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Related Concept Videos

Dihybrid Crosses01:18

Dihybrid Crosses

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Monohybrid Crosses01:20

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Trihybrid Crosses02:27

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Trihybrid Crosses
Some of Mendel’s crosses examined three pairs of contrasting characteristics. Such a cross is called a trihybrid cross. A trihybrid cross is a combination of three individual monohybrid crosses. For example, plant height (tall vs. short), seed shape (round vs. wrinkled), and seed color (yellow vs. green).
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When the fitness of a trait is influenced by how common it is (i.e., its frequency) relative to different traits within a population, this is referred to as frequency-dependent selection. Frequency-dependent selection may occur between species or within a single species. This type of selection can either be positive—with more common phenotypes having higher fitness—or negative, with rarer phenotypes conferring increased fitness.
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Asexual reproduction allows plants to reproduce without growing flowers, attracting pollinators, or dispersing seeds. Offspring are genetically identical to the parent and produced without the fusion of male and female gametes.
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While Mendel’s Law of Segregation states that the two alleles for one gene are separated into different gametes, a different question of how different genes are inherited remains. For example, is the gene for tall plants inherited with the gene for green peas? Mendel asked this question by experimenting with a dihybrid cross; a cross in which both parents are homozygous for two distinct traits resulting in an F1 generation that are heterozygous for both traits.
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Updated: Sep 9, 2025

Determination of Self- and Inter-incompatibility Relationships in Apricot Combining Hand-Pollination, Microscopy and Genetic Analyses
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Trait specialization facilitates autonomous selfing ability in a mixed-mating plant.

Hanna Makowski1, Keric Lamb1, Austin M Kim1

  • 1Department of Biology, University of Virginia, P.O. Box 400328, Charlottesville, 22904, Virginia, USA.

American Journal of Botany
|September 5, 2025
PubMed
Summary

Pollen-collecting hairs in Campanula americana, once thought to promote outcrossing, are actually linked to selfing ability. Their length and retraction dynamics vary with mating system, supporting mixed mating evolution.

Keywords:
Campanula americanaautonomous selfingfloral traitsmixed‐matingpollen‐collecting hairssecondary pollen presentationself‐fertilization

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Area of Science:

  • Evolutionary Biology
  • Plant Reproductive Biology
  • Floral Trait Evolution

Background:

  • Transitions between outcrossing and selfing influence floral trait evolution.
  • Mixed-mating systems present complex evolutionary expectations for floral traits.
  • Secondary pollen presentation is hypothesized to promote outcrossing.

Purpose of the Study:

  • Investigate the association between pollen-collecting hairs and selfing ability in Campanula americana.
  • Evaluate the role of pollen-collecting hairs in mixed-mating systems.
  • Understand the evolutionary plasticity of floral traits in relation to mating strategies.

Main Methods:

  • Characterized pollen-collecting hair morphology and retraction phenology in 15 Campanula americana populations.
  • Utilized time-series collections and automated image analysis for hair length measurement.
  • Assessed variation in self-fertilization ability across populations.

Main Results:

  • Observed two-fold variation in pollen-collecting hair length correlated with within-flower selfing ability.
  • Found variation in pollen-collecting hair retraction rate associated with selfing ability.
  • Populations with higher selfing ability exhibited longer, faster-retracting hairs.

Conclusions:

  • Pollen-collecting hairs are associated with both selfing and outcrossing within Campanula americana.
  • Pollen-collecting hairs represent a plastic phenotype influenced by developmental changes.
  • Findings support trait specialization and the 'best of both worlds' hypothesis in mixed-mating evolution.