Microbiome unlocks cancer immunotherapeutic potential: State of the art and future

Immunotherapy has overturned the traditional perception of cancer treatment and brought new vitality to the field of oncology, but it still has unresolved problems such as a low response rate and severe side effects. The microbiome has been found to be involved in tumorigenesis, progression, metastasis and immunity modulation. Especially in immunity, the microbiome plays a key role through delicate mechanisms that regulate the immune response not only from the whole body to the local tumor microenvironment but also from innate to adaptive immunity. We summarize the specific relationship between tumor-associated microbiomes at different sites (gut, oral, intratumoral) and cancer immunity, especially pay attention to the microbiome besides the gut. The microbiome-based immunotherapy has been innovatively categorized as follows. ⅰ) Bacteria-based immunotherapy and engineered bacteria as a new strategy to be used in immunotherapy. ⅱ) Microbiome combined with immunotherapy to improve efficacy and mitigate side effects. Finally, we conclude with insights into the shortcomings and future directions of microbiome in immunotherapy.