Seeds and nanomaterials: seed-assisted synthesis, nanotoxicity, and seed-associated nanotechnology innovations

Seeds are the cornerstone of agricultural crop production. They are sources of many valuable materials that can be used to convert bulk materials into nanoforms, thus supporting sustainability in nanomaterial (NM) synthesis and circular farming. The use of seeds in innovative nanotechnology is based on the theoretical knowledge about seed-NM interactions and NM toxicity on seeds. The results show that the internalization of NMs into seeds and their effect on seed physiology depend on several properties of both the NM and the plant species. Nanotechnology innovations including seed-associated strategies for improving abiotic stress tolerance, facilitating pathogen protection, effectively transferring genetic information into embryos, and converting seed oils into biodiesel have been recently developed. This review aims to provide an overview of the current knowledge regarding the complex, multidirectional interactions of seeds with NMs, and suggest directions for future research of seed nanobiology.