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Updated: Jan 18, 2026

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Toward understanding apoplastic freezing under negative pressure.

Stephen Ingram1, Alessandro Zanetti2, Linnea Mustonen3

  • 1Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research/Physics, University of Helsinki, Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2, Helsinki, 00560, Finland.

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Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Tree xylem sap freezes at warmer temperatures under negative pressure than expected. This study reveals nucleation occurs on xylem tissue surfaces, not within the sap itself, impacting freezing point predictions.

Keywords:
apoplastic freezingfrost toleranceice nucleationnegative pressurexylem nanobubbles

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Area of Science:

  • Plant Physiology
  • Biophysics
  • Physical Chemistry

Background:

  • Negative liquid pressure (tension) in xylem sap is crucial for water transport in plants.
  • Thermodynamics predicts higher freezing points under tension due to ice's density anomaly, contradicting observations in trees.
  • Observed freezing temperatures in tree branches decrease with increasing negative pressure.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the impact of negative pressure on xylem sap freezing.
  • To determine the nucleation sites of freezing in tensioned xylem sap.
  • To reconcile thermodynamic predictions with experimental observations of freezing in trees.

Main Methods:

  • Measuring freezing points of extracted Pinus sylvestris xylem sap at varying negative pressures.
  • Comparing extracted sap freezing points with those of intact, sap-filled branches under similar tensions.
  • Utilizing a cold stage array for precise temperature measurements.

Main Results:

  • Freezing onset of extracted sap was approximately 10°C lower than in intact branches.
  • Freezing points of extracted sap were uncorrelated with pre-extraction water potential.
  • Results indicate freezing nucleation initiates on xylem tissue surfaces.

Conclusions:

  • Supercooling under tension is a physical phenomenon driven by nucleation on xylem tissue.
  • Pore structure in xylem conduits may initiate ice embryos or gas nanobubbles, influencing freezing points.
  • A proposed model accurately predicts observed branch freezing onset temperatures.