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Viral Mutations

Viral Mutations

A mutation is a change in the sequence of bases of DNA or RNA in a genome. Some mutations occur during replication of the genome due to errors made by the polymerase enzymes that replicate DNA or RNA. Unlike DNA polymerase, RNA polymerase is prone to errors because it is not capable of “proofreading” its work. Viruses with RNA-based genomes, like HIV, therefore accrue mutations faster than viruses with DNA-based genomes. Because mutation and recombination provide the raw material...

Genetic Variation

Genetic Variation

Genetic variation is the diversity in DNA sequences found among individuals of the same species. This diversity is crucial for a species' survival because it helps organisms adapt to environmental changes. Genetic variation begins with fertilization, where an egg and sperm cell merge. Each of these cells carries 23 chromosomes, up to 46 in the fertilized egg. Chromosomes are long DNA strands that contain genes, the basic units of heredity.
Genes exist in different versions called alleles,...

Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms-SNPs

Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms-SNPs

A single nucleotide polymorphism or SNP is a single nucleotide variation at a specific genomic position in a large population. It is the most prevalent type of sequence variation found in the human genome. Point mutations that occur in more than 1% of the population qualify as SNPs. These are present once every 1000 nucleotides on an average in the human genome. Replacement of a purine with another purine (A/G) or a pyrimidine with another pyrimidine (C/T) is known as a transition. In contrast,...

Gene Evolution - Fast or Slow?

Gene Evolution - Fast or Slow?

The genomes of eukaryotes are punctuated by long stretches of sequence which do not code for proteins or RNAs. Although some of these regions do contain crucial regulatory sequences, the vast majority of this DNA serves no known function. Typically, these regions of the genome are the ones in which the fastest change, in evolutionary terms, is observed, because there is typically little to no selection pressure acting on these regions to preserve their sequences.
In contrast, regions which code...

Gene Evolution - Fast or Slow?

Gene Evolution - Fast or Slow?

Mutation, Gene Flow, and Genetic Drift

Mutation, Gene Flow, and Genetic Drift

In a population that is not at Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, the frequency of alleles changes over time. Therefore, any deviations from the five conditions of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium can alter the genetic variation of a given population. Conditions that change the genetic variability of a population include mutations, natural selection, non-random mating, gene flow, and genetic drift (small population size).

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 18, 2026

Isolation of Fidelity Variants of RNA Viruses and Characterization of Virus Mutation Frequency

Isolation of Fidelity Variants of RNA Viruses and Characterization of Virus Mutation Frequency

Published on: June 16, 2011

Heterogeneous Evolution Among SARS-CoV-2 Genes and Variants of Concern.

Luis Daniel González-Vázquez^1,2, Paula Iglesias-Rivas^1,2, David Ferreiro^1,2

¹CINBIO, Universidade de Vigo, Vigo, Spain.

Journal of Medical Virology

|September 12, 2025

Summary

Understanding SARS-CoV-2 evolution is key to predicting future variants. This study analyzed viral genomes, revealing a low genetic diversity but regional variations and selection pressures, highlighting the need for ongoing monitoring.

Keywords:

SARS‐CoV‐2 genomic regions genetic diversity molecular adaptation molecular evolution phylogenetics rates of evolution variants of concern

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Last Updated: Jan 18, 2026

Isolation of Fidelity Variants of RNA Viruses and Characterization of Virus Mutation Frequency

Isolation of Fidelity Variants of RNA Viruses and Characterization of Virus Mutation Frequency

Published on: June 16, 2011

Following the Dynamics of Structural Variants in Experimentally Evolved Populations

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Published on: February 3, 2023

Author Spotlight: A Pseudotype Virus System for Assessing Omicron Subvariants and Neutralizing Antibodies in SARS-CoV-2 Research

Author Spotlight: A Pseudotype Virus System for Assessing Omicron Subvariants and Neutralizing Antibodies in SARS-CoV-2 Research

Published on: September 8, 2023

Area of Science:

Virology
Genomics
Molecular Evolution

Background:

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) continues to impact public health, necessitating understanding of its molecular evolution.
Predicting future viral variants requires insight into the evolution of SARS-CoV-2 proteins targeted by therapies.

Purpose of the Study:

To assess the rate of evolution and molecular adaptation across SARS-CoV-2 coding regions.
To analyze genetic diversity, evolutionary rates, and selective pressures within the SARS-CoV-2 genome.

Main Methods:

Analysis of thousands of SARS-CoV-2 genomes.
Assessment of genetic diversity, evolutionary rates, and selective pressures.
Examination of temporal and regional variations in molecular evolution.

Main Results:

Overall low genetic diversity observed, with fluctuations over time and across genomic regions.
Notable increase in the Omicron variant, particularly in S and ORF6 genes.
Estimated molecular evolution rate of ~10^-3 substitutions per site per year, with significant regional and temporal variations; most regions deviate from a strict molecular clock.
Purifying selection predominates in protein-coding regions, with localized diversifying selection linked to transmission and replication.

Conclusions:

SARS-CoV-2 molecular evolution is heterogeneous across genomic regions and time.
Forecasting SARS-CoV-2 evolution is complex, underscoring the importance of continuous monitoring.
Findings provide critical data for understanding viral adaptation and informing public health strategies.