Quinones as mutagens, carcinogens, and anticancer agents: introduction and overview

Quinones are widespread in our environment, occurring both naturally and as pollutants. Human exposure to them is therefore extensive. Quinones also form an important class of toxic metabolites generated as a result of the metabolism of phenols and related compounds, including phenol itself, 1-naphthol, and diethylstilbestrol. The mechanisms by which quinones exert their toxic effects are complex, but two processes appear to be centrally involved: the direct arylation of sulfhydryls, and the generation of active oxygen species via redox cycling. Certain quinones have been shown to be mutagenic via the formation of active oxygen species and others via their conversion to DNA-binding semiquinone free radicals. Paradoxically, quinones are not only mutagenic and therefore potentially carcinogenic, they are also effective anticancer agents. Classic examples are Adriamycin (doxorubicin hydrochloride) and mitomycin C, but other less complex quinones also show effective antitumor activity. The design of novel quinones that are more selective in their toxicity to human tumor cells and whose mechanism of action is understood seems a promising approach in cancer treatment, especially if host toxicity can be prevented via the use of chemoprotective agents.