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Hallucinogens are psychoactive substances that profoundly alter perceptual experiences, generating unreal visual and sensory images. Often referred to as psychedelic drugs — a term derived from the Greek words "psyche" (mind) and "delos" (revealing) — these substances include marijuana and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), among others. These drugs vary in intensity and effects.
Marijuana, derived from the dried leaves and flowers of the hemp plant, contains...

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Updated: Jan 18, 2026

Dissecting the Non-human Primate Brain in Stereotaxic Space

Dissecting the Non-human Primate Brain in Stereotaxic Space

Published on: July 16, 2009

Psychedelic studies in nonhuman primates: Past and future.

Jamie C Masthay¹, Alex C Kwan^2,3,4, Steve W C Chang^5,6,7,8

¹Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.

Molecular Psychiatry

|September 12, 2025

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Nonhuman primates (NHPs) exposed to classic psychedelics show behavioral changes and tolerance, similar to humans. These NHP models offer insights into psychedelic effects on the brain and potential psychiatric applications.

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Area of Science:

Neuroscience
Pharmacology
Primatology

Background:

Serotonergic or 'classic' psychedelics have been studied in nonhuman primates (NHPs).
NHP studies provide insights into drug effects on brain and behavior in human-related species.
Variability in NHP psychedelic studies may stem from drug type, dosage, and individual differences.

Purpose of the Study:

To review knowledge gained from psychedelic research in NHPs.
To highlight the potential of NHPs as preclinical models for psychiatric conditions.
To suggest future research directions for NHP psychedelic modeling.

Main Methods:

Review of existing literature on psychedelic compounds in multiple NHP species.
Analysis of behavioral and pharmacological effects reported in NHP studies.
Comparison of NHP findings with human and rodent psychedelic research.

Main Results:

Psychedelics induce characteristic changes in spontaneous and operant behaviors in NHPs.
Observed effects in NHPs include tolerance development and low abuse liability, mirroring human responses.
Evidence regarding visual hallucinations in NHPs remains inconclusive.
NHP studies support and connect findings from human and rodent psychedelic research.

Conclusions:

Nonhuman primates serve as valuable preclinical models for understanding psychedelic effects.
NHP research contributes to elucidating psychedelic mechanisms of action.
Further research is needed to refine NHP models for psychiatric applications and ensure accuracy.