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Open and closed-loop control systems01:17

Open and closed-loop control systems

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Control systems are foundational elements in automation and engineering. They are broadly categorized into open-loop and closed-loop systems. These classifications hinge on the presence or absence of feedback mechanisms, significantly influencing the system's performance, complexity, and application.
An open-loop control system operates without feedback from the output. It consists of two primary elements: the controller and the controlled process. The controller receives an input signal...
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Updated: May 5, 2026

Development of Whispering Gallery Mode Polymeric Micro-optical Electric Field Sensors
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New Optical Voltage Sensor Based on Closed-Loop Pockels Cell and Sliding Mode Observer: Theory and Experiments.

Luis Miguel Quispe-Valencia1, Ricardo Tokio Higuti1, Marcelo Carvalho M Teixeira1

  • 1Electrical Engineering Department, School of Engineering, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Ilha Solteira 15385-007, SP, Brazil.

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|September 13, 2025
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Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

This study introduces a novel nonlinear digital controller for optical voltage sensors (OVSs) based on the Pockels effect. The controller achieves high accuracy for voltage measurements, demonstrating its potential for smart grid applications.

Keywords:
metrologyoptical high-voltage sensorphase measurementpolarimetric interferometersliding modes control

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Area of Science:

  • Electrical Engineering
  • Sensor Technology
  • Control Systems

Background:

  • Substation power demand and smart grid advancements necessitate advanced voltage measurement solutions.
  • Optical voltage sensors (OVSs) using the Pockels effect offer advantages over traditional transformers, including lower cost, smaller size, and no explosion risk.
  • Existing OVSs require efficient demodulation techniques to overcome limitations like signal fading.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To demonstrate the efficacy of a nonlinear digital controller for optical phase demodulation in OVSs.
  • To validate the controller's performance using sliding mode theory for enhanced measurement accuracy.
  • To assess the OVS with the new controller for power quality measurement applications.

Main Methods:

  • Development of a versatile nonlinear digital controller based on sliding mode theory.
  • Implementation of a proportional-integral feedback control for signal stabilization and quadrature signal generation.
  • Experimental validation using sinusoidal voltages and comparison with a commercial high-voltage probe.

Main Results:

  • The OVS exhibits excellent linearity, a 3 kHz bandwidth, and high input impedance.
  • The nonlinear digital controller successfully demodulates optical phase signals, achieving peak-to-peak relative errors below 0.8%.
  • Total harmonic distortion (THD) relative errors were under 1.5%, meeting Class 1.0 of the UNE-EN 60044-7 standard.

Conclusions:

  • The proposed nonlinear digital controller is highly efficient for OVSs, enabling precise voltage measurements.
  • The system demonstrates strong potential for accurate power quality measurements in smart grid environments.
  • This technology offers a viable, high-performance alternative to traditional voltage measurement instruments.