Engineered nanomaterials for removal, recovery, and reuse of phosphorus: From water to fertilizer pathways

Phosphorus (P) removal from water bodies is gaining attention as eutrophication continues to harm biodiversity and the global economy. At the same time, the depletion of finite rock phosphate reserves, a vital resource for plant fertilization, highlights the urgency of sustainable alternatives. Nanomaterials can offer efficient P removal techniques integrated with efficient means of recovering adsorbed P from the water bodies, which could serve as a sustainable source of P fertilizers, an alternative to rock phosphate. This review critically explores the role of nanomaterials (NMs) in the 3-Rs of P management: removal, recovery, and reuse, with a focus on their removal performance, mechanisms, and potential applications. Our analysis highlights that the deposition of metal oxide nanomaterials on support matrices (e.g., clay, biochar, 2D materials) and their entrapment in polymer matrices significantly enhances removal efficiency. The removal process is surface-controlled, influenced by nanomaterial properties, solution chemistry, and competing ions. The recovery and reuse of P-sorbed nanomaterials are evaluated under various scenarios, emphasizing their future potential and proposing improvements to enhance performance. While nanomaterials are promising to advance a P circular economy, large-scale field experiments are critically needed to validate their practical applicability and support the achievement of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals.