Investigating the Impact of Maternal Stress on Milk Glucocorticoids: A Multimethod Approach

Milk glucocorticoids (MGCs) in human milk may play a pivotal role in the health and development of children. Though MGCs might be increased by maternal stress, prior research yielded conflicting findings. The aim of this preregistered study is to examine the impact of maternal stress on MGCs. Mothers from the low-risk SMILEY cohort participated 6-8 weeks postpartum. During a naturalistic study, mothers (n = 110) reported their current global affective state three times a day (morning n = 96, afternoon n = 98, evening n = 97) and simultaneously collected milk samples (morning n = 89, afternoon n = 93, evening n = 88). During an experimental study in the lab, mothers (n = 80) were exposed to the Trier Social Stress Test or a control task and collected a milk sample 15 min thereafter. Global affect reactivity was measured using visual analogue scales and cortisol reactivity with salivary sampling. Mothers reported on mental health symptoms during the last week(s) using questionnaires. Outcomes were milk cortisol and cortisone, and the cortisol-to-cortisone ratio (cc-ratio). In the naturalistic study, global affect was unrelated to MGCs and cc-ratio. In the experimental study, the stress condition significantly increased MGCs and cc-ratio, compared to the control condition. Moreover, irrespective of group, heightened salivary cortisol reactivity was associated with increased MGCs and cc-ratio, while heightened global affect reactivity was related to increased milk cortisone only in mothers with fewer mental health symptoms. These findings show a causal effect of maternal stressor exposure on MGCs, though replication studies are warranted. Links between MGCs and self-reported global affect remain unclear, requiring future research.