The autonomic nervous system: Time for a conceptual reframing?

After having reviewed the history of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), and how Langley's concept of the ANS was born, we suggest that the terms 'cranial visceral' and 'spinal visceral' nerves are more appropriate. We discuss the limitations of the terms 'sympathetic' and 'parasympathetic' nerves and functions and suggest a way forward that avoids these terms altogether. We propose that the term 'autonomic' should not refer to a separate nervous system, because somatic components of the nervous system can also operate automatically, i.e. in a manner that is not under voluntary control.