Mapping rRNA, tRNA, and mRNA modifications in ribosomes at high resolution

Chemical modifications of rRNA, tRNA, and mRNA play key roles in protein synthesis by affecting the structure of these RNAs, by modulating decoding, and by influencing ribosomal efficiency. Recent advances in sequencing-based detection methods have expanded our ability to map these moieties across RNA molecules in diverse cellular states. In parallel, X-ray crystallography and the advent of high-resolution cryogenic electron microscopy have facilitated the direct visualization of RNA modifications within ribosomes. This review integrates recent structural studies with functional insights to shed light on the roles of RNA modifications in translation. Thereby, we seek to summarize current knowledge about the molecular roles of RNA modifications in gene expression and protein synthesis.