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Related Concept Videos

Carbon Skeletons01:12

Carbon Skeletons

Life on Earth is carbon-based, as all macromolecules that make up living organisms contain carbon atoms. All organic compounds have a carbon backbone. Each carbon atom is tetravalent and can bond with four other atoms, making it an extraordinarily flexible component of biological molecules. Because carbon’s valence electrons are stable, it rarely becomes an ion. As the carbon chain increases in length, structural modifications such as ring structures, double bonds, and branching side chains...
Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals I03:24

Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals I

The mathematical expression known as the wave function, ψ, contains information about each orbital and the wavelike properties of electrons in an isolated atom. When atoms are bound together in a molecule, the wave functions combine to produce new mathematical descriptions that have different shapes. This process of combining the wave functions for atomic orbitals is called hybridization and is mathematically accomplished by the linear combination of atomic orbitals. The new orbitals that...
Network Covalent Solids02:18

Network Covalent Solids

Network covalent solids contain a three-dimensional network of covalently bonded atoms as found in the crystal structures of nonmetals like diamond, graphite, silicon, and some covalent compounds, such as silicon dioxide (sand) and silicon carbide (carborundum, the abrasive on sandpaper). Many minerals have networks of covalent bonds.
To break or to melt a covalent network solid, covalent bonds must be broken. Because covalent bonds are relatively strong, covalent network solids are typically...
Valence Bond Theory02:42

Valence Bond Theory

Coordination compounds and complexes exhibit different colors, geometries, and magnetic behavior, depending on the metal atom/ion and ligands from which they are composed. In an attempt to explain the bonding and structure of coordination complexes, Linus Pauling proposed the valence bond theory, or VBT, using the concepts of hybridization and the overlapping of the atomic orbitals. According to VBT, the central metal atom or ion (Lewis acid) hybridizes to provide empty orbitals of suitable...
Carbocations02:10

Carbocations

Carbocations are one of the reaction intermediates formed during several nucleophilic substitutions or elimination reactions. A carbocation is an electron-deficient species with the central carbon atom having six electrons and three bonded atoms. The central carbon in a carbocation is sp2 hybridized with trigonal planar geometry. It has an empty p orbital perpendicular to the plane of the structure that can accept electrons. Thus, carbocations act as strong electrophiles and may react with any...
Radicals: Electronic Structure and Geometry01:07

Radicals: Electronic Structure and Geometry

This lesson delves into the geometry of a radical, which is influenced by the electronic structure of the molecule. The principle is similar to that of a lone pair, where the unpaired electron influences the geometry at the radical center.
Accordingly, the structure of a trivalent radical lies between the geometries of carbocations and carbanions. An sp2-hybridized carbocation is trigonal planar, while an sp3-hybridized carbanion is trigonal pyramidal. Here, the difference in geometry is...

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Plasma-Tailored Carbon Dots with Atomic-Level sp2/sp3 Hybridization for Programmable Band Structures and Optothermal

Muhammad Hussnain Akmal1, Darwin Kurniawan1, Shannon Wu1

  • 1Department of Chemical Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, 10607, Taiwan.

Small (Weinheim an Der Bergstrasse, Germany)
|September 19, 2025
PubMed
Summary

Precise control of sp2/sp3 hybridization in carbon nanomaterials was achieved using plasma nanoengineering. This method enables tunable optoelectronic properties and enhanced thermal sensing for advanced applications.

Keywords:
bandgap modulationcarbon dotsoptothermal sensingplasma nanoengineeringsp2/sp3 hybridization

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Area of Science:

  • Materials Science
  • Nanotechnology
  • Plasma Physics

Background:

  • Precise control over sp2/sp3 hybridization in carbon nanomaterials is crucial for tailoring electronic and optical properties.
  • Current methods for hybridization control often lack energy efficiency and environmental friendliness.
  • Developing sustainable and precise methods for carbon nanomaterial functionalization is a significant challenge.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To present a modular plasma nanoengineering approach for atomic-level control of hybridization in carbon dots (CDs).
  • To demonstrate the ability to tune the sp2/sp3 ratio and consequently, the optical and thermal properties of CDs.
  • To explore the potential of these engineered CDs for sensor applications.

Main Methods:

  • Utilized ambient-pressure microplasmas for nanoengineering carbon dots (CDs).
  • Adjusted plasma energy through discharge current and capillary confinement to control the sp2/sp3 hybridization ratio.
  • Characterized the synthesized CDs using microscopic and spectroscopic techniques to analyze their properties.

Main Results:

  • Achieved atomic-level control of sp2/sp3 hybridization in CDs, enabling tunable optical bandgaps (2.75-3.1 eV).
  • Demonstrated phase-dependent optothermal responses and stable photoluminescence (PL)-based thermal sensitivity up to 1.38% °C-1.
  • Identified an optimal sp2 content (≈84%) that enhances phonon-exciton coupling and PL thermal control.

Conclusions:

  • The catalyst-free, low-temperature plasma nanoengineering approach offers a scalable and sustainable method for creating customizable carbon nanomaterials.
  • Engineered CDs exhibit superior thermal sensitivity compared to traditional materials, suitable for advanced sensing.
  • This technique opens pathways for developing wearable, implantable, and optoelectronic sensors.