Engineered polysaccharide scaffolds for cartilage regeneration: Mechanisms, functionalization, and clinical prospects

Polysaccharides, naturally occurring long-chain carbohydrates composed of repeated monosaccharide units linked by glycosidic bonds, have emerged as promising biomaterials for cartilage tissue engineering due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and ability to mimic the natural extracellular matrix. This review explores the roles of polysaccharides, such as chitosan, alginate, hyaluronic acid (HA), and chondroitin sulfate, in cartilage repair, focusing on their applications in scaffold design, cell differentiation, and mechanical property enhancement. Polysaccharide-based scaffolds support chondrogenesis, regulate inflammation, and promote tissue regeneration, making them ideal candidates for cartilage repair. Functionalization with antimicrobial agents and bioactive molecules further improves their efficacy by preventing infection and promoting cell attachment and differentiation. However, challenges related to scalability, biocompatibility, stability in vivo, and cost-effective production remain exist. The review also discusses emerging trends, including the integration of 3D bioprinting, nanomaterials, and combination therapies to enhance polysaccharide-based scaffolds for cartilage repair. The future of polysaccharide-based scaffolds holds great promise in advancing cartilage tissue engineering toward clinical applications.