Unraveling the Global Vanadium Cycle for a Resilient and Sustainable Supply

Vanadium is a critical metal widely used in the steel and energy storage industries, offering new strategies for achieving a global low-carbon transition. However, knowledge of global vanadium flow patterns remains limited. Here, we employed material flow analysis associated with complex network analysis to reconstruct the global anthropogenic vanadium cycle from 1988 to 2023 and to characterize the trade patterns across the global vanadium supply chain. The results show that 4291.2 kt of vanadium was extracted from mining during this period, with 2310.3 kt entering the global market as refined products. High-strength low-alloy steel (30.8%) and carbon steel (28.0%) dominated semifinished product consumption, while the buildings and infrastructure (34.1%) and transport (30.2%) sectors were the major contributors to in-use stocks. While the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, and Germany played pivotal roles in maintaining global trade connectivity, China emerged as the dominant exporter of downstream vanadium products. Analyses of the network efficiency and supply concentration highlight the structural fragility of the global vanadium supply chain. Mitigating potential supply risks requires coordinated global efforts to enhance collaboration, improve utilization efficiency, and strengthen recycling from in-use stocks.