Smart inorganic nanoparticles in nanomedicine: Strategies for synthesis and functionalization

Inorganic nanoparticles (INPs) offer unique physicochemical properties that can be exploited as tools in biomedicine. We examine top-down and bottom-up fabrication methods, highlighting the impact of each route on NP size, shape, and biocompatibility. Green synthesis strategies are obtaining more attention due to their sustainability and low toxicity. We explain how synthesis conditions affect colloidal stability, crystallinity, and surface reactivity. Surface functionalization is vital for using INPs in gene delivery. It helps with targeted uptake and controlled release. This review describes how the choice of synthesis methods and surface functionalization influences the physicochemical properties of INPs by affecting their biodistribution, cellular uptake, and biological response. Although the potential is promising, challenges remain in scaling up production and assessing long-term safety. Future integration of responsive design strategies with clinical applications will be crucial for unlocking the full therapeutic potential of INPs.