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Shearing Strain01:20

Shearing Strain

1.3K
The shearing strain represents a cubic element's angular change when subjected to shearing stress. This type of stress can transform a cube into an oblique parallelepiped without influencing normal strains. The cubic element experiences a significant transformation when exposed solely to shearing stress. Its shape alters from a perfect cube into a rhomboid, clearly demonstrating the effect of shearing strain. The degree of this strain is considered positive if it reduces the angle between the...
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Bulk Density of Aggregate01:22

Bulk Density of Aggregate

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Bulk density refers to the mass of aggregate particles that would fill a unit volume. The concept of bulk density originates from the inability to pack aggregate particles in a manner that completely eliminates void spaces. Hence, the term bulk refers to the volume that encompasses both the aggregates and the voids. This measurement is crucial when aggregates are batched by volume and is used to convert quantities by mass to volume.
Most natural mineral aggregates, like sand and gravel,...
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Specific Gravity of Aggregate01:19

Specific Gravity of Aggregate

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Aggregates typically contain pores, which can be either permeable or impermeable. Considering the pores in the aggregates, the specific gravity of aggregates is defined in three different forms, namely, bulk or gross specific gravity, apparent specific gravity, and absolute specific gravity.
Bulk or gross specific gravity is calculated by taking the ratio of the mass of aggregates in the saturated surface-dry state to the total volume that includes both the solids and the voids within the...
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Relation between Poisson's ratio, Modulus of Elasticity and Modulus of Rigidity01:15

Relation between Poisson's ratio, Modulus of Elasticity and Modulus of Rigidity

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Deformation occurs in axial and transverse directions when an axial load is applied to a slender bar. This deformation impacts the cubic element within the bar, transforming it into either a rectangular parallelepiped or a rhombus, contingent on its orientation. This transformation process induces shearing strain. Axial loading elicits both shearing and normal strains. Applying an axial load instigates equal normal and shearing stresses on elements oriented at a 45° angle to the load axis.
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Shape and Texture of Coarse Aggregate01:25

Shape and Texture of Coarse Aggregate

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Aggregate shape is classified based on the relative sharpness or roundness of the edges and corners. This classification includes categories like rounded, angular, elongated, and flaky, each with specific characteristics. Rounded aggregates, fully shaped by attrition, are typical of river or seashore gravel, while angular aggregates, such as crushed rock, have well-defined edges. Aggregates that are elongated and flaky are less desirable, as they can reduce the workability and strength of...
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Generalized Hooke's Law01:22

Generalized Hooke's Law

2.6K
The generalized Hooke's Law is a broadened version of Hooke's Law, which extends to all types of stress and in every direction. Consider an isotropic material shaped into a cube subjected to multiaxial loading. In this scenario, normal stresses are exerted along the three coordinate axes. As a result of these stresses, the cubic shape deforms into a rectangular parallelepiped. Despite this deformation, the new shape maintains equal sides, and there is a normal strain in the direction of the...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 17, 2026

Visualization of Failure and the Associated Grain-Scale Mechanical Behavior of Granular Soils under Shear using Synchrotron X-Ray Micro-Tomography
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Visualization of Failure and the Associated Grain-Scale Mechanical Behavior of Granular Soils under Shear using Synchrotron X-Ray Micro-Tomography

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Particle Scale Anisotropy Controls Bulk Properties in Sheared Granular Materials.

Carmen L Lee1, Ephraim Bililign1,2, Emilien Azéma3,4,5

  • 1North Carolina State University, Department of Physics, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, USA.

Physical Review Letters
|September 22, 2025
PubMed
Summary

This study experimentally validates the stress-force-fabric (SFF) relationship in granular materials. Particle-scale force and fabric anisotropies quantitatively predict bulk friction and stress tensor components.

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Area of Science:

  • Granular physics
  • Soft matter physics
  • Experimental mechanics

Background:

  • Dense granular material dynamics involve particle-scale and mesoscale effects.
  • Anisotropic structures like grain connectivity and force transmission influence bulk properties via the stress-force-fabric (SFF) relationship.
  • Experimental validation of these effects has been limited by challenges in measuring particle-scale forces.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To experimentally investigate the link between particle-scale structural anisotropies and bulk properties in sheared granular systems.
  • To validate the quantitative predictive power of the stress-force-fabric (SFF) relationship in a laboratory setting.
  • To bridge the gap between theoretical models and experimental measurements of granular material behavior.

Main Methods:

  • Experiments conducted on a sheared photoelastic granular system in a quasi-2D annular cell.
  • Measurement of particle locations, contacts, and normal and frictional force vectors during loading.
  • Reconstruction of angular distributions of contact and force vectors to extract emergent anisotropies.

Main Results:

  • Successfully measured particle-scale force and contact vector distributions and their anisotropies.
  • Demonstrated that the stress-force-fabric (SFF) relationship quantitatively predicts the relationship between particle-scale anisotropies and the stress tensor components.
  • Showcased the SFF relationship's ability to capture transient behaviors and predict bulk friction coefficient.

Conclusions:

  • The stress-force-fabric (SFF) relationship is experimentally validated as a quantitative predictor of bulk properties in granular materials.
  • Particle-scale force and fabric anisotropies directly influence macroscopic behavior, as evidenced by the SFF relationship.
  • This study closes the gap between theoretical/numerical models and experimental observations in granular physics.