Phytoremediation: A sustainable and promising bio-based approach to heavy metal pollution management

Phytoremediation, a plant-based strategy for removing or stabilizing contaminants, has been extensively reviewed in terms of its general mechanisms and applications for remediating heavy metal-contaminated soils. However, prior reviews often focus on isolated aspects, such as specific plant species, mechanisms of metal uptake, or localized applications, without integrating advances in genetic, physiological, and valorization strategies or assessing limitations in real-world implementation. This review provides a comprehensive and updated synthesis of phytoremediation strategies for heavy metals, highlighting recent insights into plant-metal interactions, including rhizosphere processes, metal uptake pathways, and translocation mechanisms. Special attention is given to the role of hyperaccumulators and associated microorganisms in enhancing remediation efficiency. The review further examines the influence of external amendments (e.g., biochar, chelators, nanoparticles) and environmental factors (e.g., pH, organic matter) on phytoremediation outcomes. Importantly, this work explores novel perspectives on the integration of phytoremediation with biomass valorization through energy and material recovery, as well as its relevance within circular economy models. Limitations and challenges for field-scale applications are critically discussed, including phytotoxicity, metal bioavailability, and biomass disposal. By identifying current research gaps and emerging trends, this review offers a broader and more integrative perspective on the sustainable use of phytoremediation for environmental cleanup and resource recovery.